Personality disorder

A personality disorder (PD) is a mental disorder characterized by an enduring and pervasive maladaptive pattern of behavior, emotions, cognition, and inner experience, deviating from social norms. As a common feature, this manifests in significant impairment in interpersonal relationships and various aspects of functioning of the self, such as self-concept, in conjunction with pathological personality traits. These patterns develop early, are inflexible, and are associated with significant distress or disability. There are both dimensional and categorical approaches to the classification of personality disorders, with the former being implemented in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), whereas the main model in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is categorical; moreover, the Alternative DSM-5 model for personality disorders (AMPD) combines the two into a hybrid model. In accordance with the categorical approach, personality disorders are viewed as distinct types, such as avoidant or narcissistic; on the other hand, the dimensional systems employed in the ICD-11 and AMPD rate severity and pathological traits. For psychiatric patients, the prevalence of personality disorders is estimated between 40 and 60%. The behavior patterns of personality disorders are typically recognized by adolescence, the beginning of adulthood or sometimes even childhood and often have a pervasive negative impact on the quality of life. Treatment for personality disorders is primarily psychotherapeutic. Evidence-based psychotherapies for personality disorders include cognitive behavioral therapy and dialectical behavior therapy, especially for borderline personality disorder. A variety of psychoanalytic approaches are also used. Personality disorders are associated with considerable stigma in popular and clinical discourse alike. Despite various methodological schemas designed to categorize personality disorders, many issues occur with classifying a personality disorder because the theory and diagnosis of such disorders occur within prevailing cultural expectations; thus, their validity is contested by some experts on the basis of inevitable subjectivity. They argue...