Plausible deniability

Plausible deniability is the ability of a person or organization to deny a connection (knowledge, responsibility, or involvement) to a controversial action in a manner that cannot be conclusively disproved. In politics and espionage, the term traditionally refers to the concealment or withholding of acknowledgement, of a sponsor's role in a covert operation, so that the sponsoring government can disclaim responsibility if the operation comes to light. In the study of language and communication, indirect speech and insinuation are analysed as ways for a speaker to preserve deniability about the intended meaning of an utterance. The political concept is closely associated with the United States during the early Cold War. National Security Council directive NSC 10/2 of 1948 defined covert operations as activities planned and executed so that any US government responsibility for them "is not evident to unauthorized persons and that if uncovered the US Government can plausibly disclaim any responsibility for them". The expression gained public prominence in the mid-1970s, when the Church Committee of the US Senate concluded that the doctrine, originally intended to protect the United States from the consequences of disclosure, had been expanded to shield presidents and their senior staff from accountability for controversial decisions. Scholars have questioned if plausible deniability can be practically achieved. Many covert operations have their sponsorship apparent although officially unacknowledged, and states have sometimes derived value from such "implausibly deniable" action, for example by signalling resolve to an adversary while limiting pressure to escalate. In pragmatics, researchers have examined how even thinly veiled innuendo retains a degree of deniability, and why denials of an insinuated message can succeed even when the message was understood by everyone involved.