Printing press

A printing press is a machine that applies pressure to transfer ink onto a surface made of paper, cloth, or a similar material. Its workers are known as printing press operators. It marked a significant improvement on earlier methods, in which the paper was rubbed by hand to transfer applied ink to the printing surface. The printing press was invented by the German goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, and its subsequent global spread revolutionized literary production and communication during the early modern period. The spread of printing brought about an era of mass communication in European society, allowing information to quickly spread across Europe and contributing to the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution. The cost of printed texts declined and their availability increased, facilitating higher adult literacy rates across Europe. Books increasingly appeared in vernacular languages rather than Latin, and national languages were standardized. The basic design of the wooden handpress was largely consistent for over three centuries, until the Industrial Revolution. By 1800 Lord Stanhope had built a new iron printing press printing a sheet at one pull. In 1814, The Times adopted Friedrich Koenig's new presses, which incorporated steam power and rotary motion. Richard M. Hoe's rotary printing press, introduced in 1843, enabled much higher output; later rotary presses could produce millions of page impressions in a day. During the twentieth century, the letterpress was largely replaced by offset printing, phototypesetting, and digital printing in commercial work.