Feng Shan

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Feng Shan or feng-shan (Chinese: 封禪), also referred to as the Feng and Shan sacrifices, was an official rite offered by the Son of Heaven (kings of Zhou and later emperors of China) to pay homage to heaven and earth. The sacrifices were usually offered at Mount Tai, the highest peak in the area, and nearby Mount Liangfu. The emperor would pay homage to heaven (on the summit) and earth (at the foot of the mountain) in the Feng (Chinese: 封; pinyin: Fēng) and Shan (Chinese: 禪; pinyin: Shàn) sacrifices respectively. Completing Feng Shan allowed the emperor to receive the mandate of heaven. The term 'feng' can roughly be translated to mean "to seal", while the term 'shan' can roughly be translated to mean "to clear away". It is considered among the most important rituals of religious Confucianism. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Feng involved building altars out of soil at the peak of Mt. Tai and proclaiming the merits and legitimacy of the emperor to god of heaven. Shan involved clearing land at the foot of the mountain to show respect for the god of earth. It was seen as a point by which emperors could meditate on the relationship between heaven and earth. While historically considered limited to the Emperor, commoners have performed the ceremony at times without imperial permission. The general Huo Qubing did it alone. It is considered a prerequisite that the empire is in a period of prosperity with a good emperor and auspicious signs to perform the ritual. Many sovereigns refused to perform the ritual citing themselves as unworthy of it. They are considered parallel to the Secular Games of the Roman Empire in their political role with both being highly infrequent celebrations. Both had high religious significance and were influential...