Observer-expectancy effect

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The observer-expectancy effect is a form of reactivity in which a researcher's cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment. Confirmation bias can lead to the experimenter interpreting results incorrectly because of the tendency to look for information that affirms their hypothesis, and overlook information that conflicts with it. It is a significant threat to a study's internal validity, and is therefore typically controlled using a double-blind experimental design. The observer-expectancy effect is distinct from related phenomena such as the subject-expectancy effect and demand characteristics. In observer-expectancy effects, the researcher’s expectations influence participant behavior or data interpretation through subtle cues, whereas subject-expectancy effects arise from participants’ own beliefs about the study, and demand characteristics refer more broadly to situational cues that signal expected responses. It may include conscious or unconscious influences on subject behavior including creation of demand characteristics that influence subjects, and altered or selective recording of experimental results themselves.