Khamr

Khamr (Arabic: خمر, plural, khumūr Arabic: خمور), is an Arabic word for wine or other alcoholic beverages or intoxicants. In an Islamic context, khamr is variously defined as alcoholic beverages, wine or liquor. The position of alcohol in Islam is a complex subject in terms of its historical implementation and nuanced scholarly interpretation. While the dominant belief among Muslims is that the consumption, sale, transport, or service of alcohol in any form is forbidden, there are some disagreements. For example, the Hanafi school interprets khamr to only refer to certain specific beverages, rather than all intoxicants. According to Murtaza Haider of Dawn, "A consensus (ijma) on how to deal with alcohol has eluded Muslim jurists for more than a millennium". The Islamic definition of khamr varies by the school of jurisprudence (madhhab). While most Islamic jurists have traditionally viewed it as general term for any fermented intoxicating beverage, one school (Hanafi) has limited it to alcohol derived from dates and grapes. Over time, other intoxicants, such as opium and khat, have been classed by jurists as khamr. A minority of Muslims consume alcohol and believe consuming alcohol is not Qur'anically forbidden. In Alawism, an esoteric sect of Islam, Sufi Bektashism, and Alevism, the consumption of alcohol is permissible. Historically, many Muslim elites consumed alcohol, encompassing the reign of the Umayyads, the Abbasids, Islamic Spain (al-Andalus), and dynasties that ruled Egypt and the eastern, Persianate part of the Muslim world. These included notable rulers such as al-Hakam I (r. 796–822), al-Mu'tamid (r. 870–892), and Abd al-Rahman III (r. 912–961). Drinking wine was also reflected by Islamic poets, such as Abu Nuwas, Ibrahim al-Nazzam, Omar Khayyam, Rumi, and Hafez Shirazi. Wine consumption in the Islamic Golden Age was a mainstream literal practice, sometimes even intertwined with religious rituals. A notable figure during...